Augustus Ascendant Part 5

Augustus was an extremely adroit politician and his new regime was a great coup that had wide support. He was careful not to push his luck too far and tactfully left Rome for almost three years to give the new constitutional arrangements time to take hold without seeming forced. Augustus continued to be elected consul, but left administration to hsi consular colleagues, among them the essential Agrippa.

During this time, Augustus' huge new province needed some looking after. Gaul had fallen into disarray during Rome's civil wars and Augustus brought it firmly back under control. Once he established order and conducted a census, he went to Spain. Spain presented a much harder egg to crack. The native tribes in the northern of the two Spanish provinces had never been completely conquered.

The Astures (whence the modern Asturias) and the Cantabri (in the region of modern Bilbao and Santander) tribes in particular were putting up an effective resistance. Augustus led the campaign against them, but this time without the help of Agrippa's indispensable generalship. These tribes employed guerilla tactics. They would strike out from their mountain hideouts and smartly avoid the full-scale battle for which the legion was designed. The Romans-who of course were superb soldiers-just weren't well adjusted to this style of fighting. They would march in a given direction and find themselves confronted with an enemy hidden in valleys and woods and would fall prey to ambushes.

Augustus was superstitious, and was a huge believer in omens. He had a piece of sealskin he used as an amulet for protection from thunder and lightning, which he was afraid of. The amulet proved its worth and confirmed his superstitious nature during the Spanish campaign. A flash of lightning struck so close that it scorched his litter and killed a slave who was walking ahead lighting the way with a torch. In gratitude for his survival in this close scrape with the grim reaper, he built the Temple of Jupiter Tonans (the Thunderer) on the edge of the Capitol overlooking the Forum. This temple was famous for its splendor and the famous works of art in it. Augustus--very pious in his own way-would visit this temple often in the years to come.

Augustus again became sick as he so often did when involved in a crisis-especially a military one. Augustus went to the Pyrenees and convalesced in Tarraco (modern Tarragona). During this period of illness, which lasted for about a year, Augustus wrote an autobiography, which he dedicated to Maecenas and Agrippa. No ancient sources tell us what Augustus was ill from, although Dio does say it was caused "from the fatigue and anxiety caused by these conditions." Most unfortunately, this autobiography has been lost to history. Augustus' deputy quickly brought the conflict in northern Spain to an end, which victory was credited to the military genius of Augustus--of course!

On page 213 of Anthony Everitt's Augustus: "During the late Republic, the wives of senior Roman officials did not travel abroad with their husbands. Augustus himself ruled that the legates he appointed to the provinces at his disposal should not spend time with their wives or, if they insisted on doing so, then only outside the campaigning season (generally March to October)."

"However, we have it on good authority that Livia accompanied her husband on his travels to west and east. She was probably with him in Gaul and Spain, although she will have stayed safely in the rear when Augustus was with the army, and tended him when he was ill."

Livia was an able businesswoman and over the years accumulated numerous properties and estates across the empire. Her tours around the Meditteranean as Rome's first lady allowed her to inspect her acquisitions and check that they were being well managed. In Gaul she owned land with a copper mine. Her property portfolio also included palm groves in Judea and estates in Egypt, including papyrus marshes, arable farms, vineyards, commercial vegetable gardens, granaries, and olive and wine presses."

As mentioned before, Augustus' wavering health may have been the reason he made the first major move to arrange a dyanstic succession in 25 BC (when he was only 38). He had his daughter and only child, Julia, by his second wife Scribonia, married off to his nephew, Marcellus. Julia was fourteen and Marcellus twenty. Augustus was in Spain at the time so Agrippa presided over the wedding. It would have been so interesting had Agrippa been the sort of fellow to leave his thoughts about this obvious monarchial type succession plan to history, but as Anthony Everitt states in Augustus: "...what he thought of the young man's promotion is unknown, for he kept his own counsel."

The image is of what remains of the Theater of Marcellus at nighttime. More about this theater will be explained in a later post. I may have time to do one more post today-not sure. Thanks again so very much to Jon, human being and anyone else commenting or following this blog!

Augustus Ascendant Part 2

Octavian was now the undisputed master of Rome-he just downplayed a role so many others would have and did play up. Perhaps the more keen-eyed observers would have noticed the prescence of two teenagers, riding on his chariot's right and left trace horses during his triumph. These were the sons' of the two closest women in his life. Gaius Claudius Marcellus was his sister Octavia's 14-year-old son and the other young man was Tiberius Claudius Nero, his wife Livia's 13-year-old eldest son.

Octavia, who appears to have been a very loving and giving person anyway-loved her son "cheerful in mind and disposition" deeply. Octavian's interest in the youth certainly echoed Julius Caesar's interest in his years earlier as he was also a handsome and intelligent boy. Tiberius was no slouch in many areas either, but he had to play second fiddle in Octavian's plans because he was not related by blood-being Livia's son by her first husband.

Octavian was not only in complete control of the Roman empire-but was already starting to think about the long-term survival of his regime and his dynasty! Part of this planning and scheming was not just because it was Octavian's intelligence and nature to be this way-but due to his always unsteady health it was not too early to think of succession plans. If Octavian's nephew lived up to his promise, Octavian couldn't ask for a more suitable heir-and would keep control of the empire "in the family" at the same time.

Here is a quote from Anthony Everitt's Augustus on page 204 that explains more: "There was another thing: Octavian liked and trusted youth. He and his "band of brothers," his two trusted former school friends, Agrippa and Maecenas, had set out together on their great enterprise to avenge Caesar's murder and win power in their late teens. The challenges they faced called forth their talent; now Octavian was looking forward to promoting the new younger generation that was about to emerge. Perhaps as early as 29 B.C., he arranged for the minimum age of officeholders to be reduced: in the case of a quaestor, from thirty years to twenty-five, of a consul, from forty-two to thirty-seven. Senators' sons were expected to familiarize themselves with administration; they were allowed to wear the purple-striped toga, which was the uniform of a senator, encouraged to attend Senate meetings, and given officer posts during their military service."

It wasn't for lack of trying that Octavian and Livia didn't produce an heir of their own. They had each had children by former spouses, and some sources from the classical era put it down to physical incompatibility, but it is more likely that a physical illness led one or the other to become infertile. The boys were still too young to help govern the new regime. Octavian's childhood friends, Agrippa and Maecenas still had huge responsibilities in this area.

Agrippa had been described as "more of a rustic at heart than a man of refined tastes." However, here it must certainly be stated that Agrippa admired fine art and even argued that all paintings and sculptures should be nationalized rather than be viewed by a chosen few in private collections! Not only that, but Agrippa collected art himself and spent the incredible sum of 1.2 million sesterces on two paintings-one of them featured the Greek hero Ajax and the other Aphrodite. A man who practiced what he preached, Agrippa had these paintings put in public baths he built.

Greatly dissimilar to Agrippa it was said Maecenas could almost "outdo a woman in giving himself up to indolence and soft luxury." He was very taken with silks and jewels. Maecenas was also an epicure and made popular a new delicacy-the flesh of young donkeys-to Rome's upscale dining tables. He was supposedly the first man to have a heated swimming pool in Rome. Interesting also, is the fact that he was married to the gorgeous but conceited Terentia. The couple was forever fighting, but Maecenas remained in love with her and would always seek reconciliation. Apparently Terentia caught Octavian's eye and eventually had an affair with him. This doesn't seem to have set relations back between the two men and Maecenas was hardly monogamous himself-although he certainly never tried to seduce Livia! Although one of his affairs was with a freedman and friend of Octavian, a famous actor, Bathyllus.

It would seem from every possible historical source that Octavian only slept with women, but he didn't take the slightest offense to the various sexual habits among members of his inner circle. It would seem that Maecenas didn't take any offense at Octavian's making fun of his effulgent style of writing either. Macrobius, a writer of the fifth century A.D., quotes on example: "Goodbye, my ebony of Medullia, ivory from Etruria, silphium from Arretium, diamond of the Adriatic, pearl from the Tiber, Cilnian emerald, jasper of the Iquvians, Pesenna's beryl, Italy's carbuncle-in short, you charmer of unfaithful wives."

Howver crazy his private life, Maecenas was amazing during times of crisis-showing tireless energy and unwavering skill at giving superb political advice. What was even better for both Octavian and the regime in many ways is that he didn't seek public office and honors, preferring to remain in the background. Maecenas did champion the greatest poets of the age also, and made sure that rare talents like Virgil and Horace were able to publish their works without censorship and stayed in favor with the new order.

Agrippa, for his part detested Maecenas' effeminate and luxurious manners. Agrippa was a very non-cynical, direct and loyal man in an era when men of unquestioned loyalty were sometimes hard to find. Without Agrippa's excellent generalship it is doubtful-impossible maybe that Octavian could possibly have got as far as he got. He received the corona rostrata for his role in the Naulochus campaign. Without Agrippa, the war against Sextus Pompeius would have been lost and he was also the strategist behind the victory at Actium. For Actium, Agrippa got the right to display an azure banner. Also of more fiscal value, Agrippa had the freehold country estates in Egypt. Agrippa was so trusted (as well he should have been), he was for all practical purposes Octavian's deput-almost his equal even, but always in Octavian's somehow larger shadow.

A historian that lived close to Agrippa's time says Agrippa "was...well-disciplined to obedience, but to one man only, yet eager to command others, in whatever he did he never admitted the possibility of delay. With him an idea was implemented as soon as it was thought of." The image portrayals left to us by history of Agrippa show a man with very stern and determined features. He definitely even looks like a man whose anger was to be feared-possibly even by his friend and master?

Agrippa did have official posts unlike the "unofficial" minister of culture-Maecenas-in a post that didn't exist. Agrippa was as unpurusing of the adornments of authority as Maecenas was, although for a completely different reason. Maecenas simply didn't care to hold the actual reigns of power (being satisfied with influence), Agrippa cared for it with great zest-but only for its reality.

There are no historical records of Agrippa's private opinions on political matters. However, as Anthony Everitt states in Augustus: "...we may surmise that he watched Octavian's growing affection for Marcellus with unease. As the young man grew up, Agrippa could well find an inexperienced heir interfering in his freedom of action, interposing himself between him and Octavian. That would not do."

The information for this post came from pages 203 to 206 in Anthony Everitt's Augustus. I really enjoyed this whole bit written here-and believe there is much more to come. I intentionally didn't "condense" information from this part as I found it so interesting. This is everything I have ready to go and I wanted to post it this evening in case I am offline (or not online much) for the next few days. I hope to post again soon-but am not promising anything -on anything I do as I have been struggling with health stuff more than usual-now it seems an overwhelming sense of exhaustion has taken hold of me along with everything else! Thanks again Jon and others for the great comments! I hope anyone stopping by has a beautiful Christmas (and if you don't celebrate Christmas a beautiful holiday season)-and a wonderful and joyous 2010!

Roman Empire: New Wars Old Enemies Part Eleven

By the autumn of 39 BC, Octavian let his heart rule him. On the face of it this was out of character for him. He had fallen in love with Livia Drusilla who was about nineteen years old. She was also beautiful and intelligent. However, a snag in Octavian's adoration was instantly apparent. She was already married to a noble cousin of hers, Tiberius Claudius Nero, and also pregnant with his second baby. And by now Scribonia had given birth to Julia. The marriage of Octavian to Scribonia-a political arrangement only was not a healthy marriage. Scribonia was quite a bit older than Octavian and a gravis femina, a dignified, serious woman. Octavian divorced Scribonia on the same day that his daughter, Julia was born. His only explanation: "I couldn't bear the way she nagged at me." The man Livia was married to was from another branch of the Claudian clan. Tiberius had switched sides between the optimates (republican senators) and the Caesarians several times over they years. When the republican cause was defeated at Philippi he performed yet another volte face and became a supporter of Mark Antony. Tiberius took his support of Antony all the way to the siege at Perusia and beyond, trying to cause a slave revolt against Octavian by promising them their freedom. Octavian's forces defeated them and Tiberius and Livia were forced to flee to Sextus in Sicily.

The Treaty of Misenum let Tiberius and Livia come back to Rome, as Sextus had put their names down on a list of returning exiles to be restored. After a long and harrowing exile, Tiberius, Livia and their son, little Tiberius were back in Rome. Their circumstances were reduced as he had to forfeit his property because he was an exile and opponent of the Triumvirate. This forfeiture also included a home on the Palatine Hill, but apparently this was not the only property he owned as he had another home there also to come back to. Livia's thoughts on her husbands constant side-switching that had led to their circumstances are not known, and their bittersweet homecoming to Rome also included news that Livia was pregnant again. Interestingly, Octavian may have been introduced to Livia by his former wife, Scribonia. He wasn't going to let any obstacles come between him and his new-found love. Octavian met with Livia very soon after her return to Rome and asked her to marry him. She quickly said yes and Tiberius meekly agreed to a divorce. They were probably engaged in late September or early October 39 BC. Thought to be a bit scandalous, due to the speed and machinations of their affair, nevertheless a grand betrothal banquet was held.

As with other people of the nobility at the time, Livia owned little slave boys (usually from Syria or Africa) called deliciae (darlings). These boys probably prefigured court jesters in that they had license to say anything and not be penalized for it. The little boys went around a room of guests, naked trying to entertain and amuse guests with their remarks. During the banquet one of these boys saw Livia and Octavian sharing a dining couch while the unceremoniously dumped Tiberius shared one with a male guest. He came to Livia and said: "What are you doing here, mistress? For your husband is over there." The couple waited a time before the wedding due to Livia's unborn child by Tiberius. Octavian's conservative (although hypocritical) nature and the fact that he had served in the priesthood himself, led him to consult the proper religious authority, the pontifices: could he marry Livia while she was pregnant? Even though the pontifices said they could marry, the couple delayed their wedding until after the birth of her second child, another boy born on 14 January and given the praenomen Drusus. The Roman people suspected that he was the product of adultery with his stepfather. This is factually wrong because Octavian did not meet Livia until after she had conceived in the spring of 39 BC, but of course, the gossip was too delicious and salacious to pass up. The couple was wed on 17 January 38 BC in the timeless custom of the Roman marriage ceremony.

The ceremony dramatized the bride's taking leave of her father's house to the groom's. Apparently Livia's father was dead because Tiberius gave her away. Indeed she must have spent the night before her wedding at his home-I wonder how that went! During the ceremony an animal sacrifice would have been offered to the gods. Then by age old custom Livia would have said to Octavian, "Ubi tues Gaius, ego Gaia."-"Where you are Gaius, I am Gaia." This was the heart of the ceremony and everyone present would have shouted "Feliciter!"-"Congratulations." Then Octavian would have led Livia in a street procession from Tiberius's house to his own. Flute players would have led the way followed by torchbearers. As the procession moved along people would have been happily singing raunchy songs. Once at Octavian's home which would have been decked out in flowers for the occasion a few more rituals would have been performed, and then men who had been married only once would have carried Livia through the front door; this was to avoid the bride tripping on the threshold-a very bad omen to the Romans. Then after a splendid wedding breakfast and more bawdy songs guests would have begun leaving for the new couple to enjoy some privacy.

Tiberius, by law, would have stayed with his father as he was three and the paterfamilias had absolute authority over his children. Octavian also gave the elder Tiberius the infant Drusus. It is not known what Livia's feelings were about this. But what we know of her from other records tends to indicate that her feelings were for the future grandeur of her postition rather than her children. Livia was able to get both her sons back anyway five years later in 33 BC, when Tiberius died. Octavian's marriage is important historically because it appears to be the first occasion in his life where he was led by his heart and also because Livia becomes important in his life, especially later on when she may have influenced the succession upon Octavian's (Augustus Caesar's) death. Their marriage also portended trends in the future and not just significant because Octavian was now married into the noble Claudii family. For Livia had been one of the exiles who had once been on Sicily with her husband, in a group of people that had amassed around the last hope of the Republic-Sextus Pompeius. Livia, in marrying the Republic's deadliest nemesis is a valuable historical marker that the ruling class was starting to realize there was no going back to the old days and starting to accomodate the new. Speaking of Sextus Pompeius, interesting events were starting to happen with and around him starting in 38 BC, just a very short time after the Treaty of Misenum. While Sextus' popularity with the Roman people was growing stronger, some disagreements had already arisen between Octavian and Sextus with the result that Octavian already felt that the treaty was a mistake.

The image is of an Egyptian basalt bust of Livia Augusta created around 31 BC, now in the Louvre in Paris. I am hoping to have the next article here soon. I should have enough ready to go for between five to seven posts. Peace and be well to anyone stopping by!