Roman Empire: New Wars Old Enemies Part One

No one could escape what the desecration of Cicero's mortal remains meant: free speech was dead. Appian tells of the terrible stories of this new proscription: "Many people were murdered in all kinds of ways, and decapitated to furnish evidence for the reward. They fled in undignified fashion, and abandoned their former conspicuous dress for strange disguises. Some went down wells, some descended into the filth of sewers, and others climbed up into smoky rafters or sat in total silence under close-packed roofs. To some, just as terrifying as the executioners were wives or children with whom they were not on good terms, or ex-slaves, or creditors, or neighboring landowners who coveted their estates." Another story concerns a boy-a teenager who we only know from history as Atilius. He probably belonged to a noble plebian family. The young man had just come of age and his father had died and he inherited a fortune. He had been celebrating his coming of age with friends in Rome. Unfortunately his coming of age meant he could be tried for adult crimes-although he was an entirely innocent victim when his name was added to the proscription list. In fact, it was probably only his wealth that got him put on the list. In due course his friends deserted him, his mother was too scared to give him shelter so he ended up running away to the mountains.

Atilius had been forced by hunger to come down from the mountains and was caught by a bandit who preyed on passing travelers and forced them to work for him. The young man could not bear the hard labor after being brought up in luxury. He escaped and unwisely told some passing centurions on a main road his real name. The centurions killed him on the spot and no doubt brought his head back to Rome for their grisly reward. Another story is told on a funerary inscription. A grieving husband whose name we do not know-nor his wife's-but she is usually referred to as Turia, tells his story of the proscription on his wife's urn: "You provided abundantly for my needs during my flight and gave me the means for a dignified life-style, when you took all the gold and jewellery you wore and sent it to me." The story continues that a year later, when the proscription had ended, Octavian had pardoned Turia's husband. However, Lepidus, another triumvir was then responsible for the city of Rome and refused to acknowledge Octavian's decision. Turia had went to Lepidus to ask him to recognize the pardon but he instead had her dragged away and beaten. Turia's husband believed that Octavian's anger at Lepidus's behavior played a part in his eventual downfall: "That matter was soon to prove harmful to him," the widower notes with satisfaction.

In the end the proscription didn't bring in the money that the triumvirs had hoped for. So, after liquidating up to 300 senators (Cicero among them) and two thousand of the equestrian class they still had to find a way to pay for forty-three legions. They came up with a new proscription list that only confiscated private property and came up with new taxes. The three men had proven there wasn't anything they wouldn't do in their pursuit of power and they even stole personal savings guarded by the sacred Vestal Virgins. The new taxes were an unwelcome shock to the citizens of Rome. For the last century they had been exempt from personal tax due to the wealth and expansion of their empire. The citizens of Rome were now in a very real sense paying for their civil war because the western provinces had been milked dry and the east could not be touched. While the triumvirs tried desperately to fill their war chests back in Rome, the republican cause elsewhere was flourishing. Rome had a new thorn in its side to complement the growing power of Brutus and Cassius in the east. This new problem went by the name of Sextus Pompeius, Pompey the Great's youngest son. Sextus, along with his mother Cornelia had witnessed their father's and husband's execution on the beach at Egypt, due to the court intrigues of Ptolemy XIII, who was Cleopatra's brother and husband although at the time they were engaged in a vicious power struggle for the throne of Egypt.

Undoubtedly the shock of what he had witnessed changed Sextus forever. It is widely believed he based his life on his father's memory. He gave himself the agnomen Pius, meaning that he was loyal to his father's memory. Sextus had served with his older brother Gnaeus when they were fighting Caesar's legions in Spain. That particular battle was lost and Gnaeus hunted down and killed. Sextus escaped and Caesar even published a pardon for him as he thought him too young to be a threat. This additional example of Julius Caesar's clemency was a mistake. Sextus, although only a teenager was able to wage a very effective guerilla war to the dismay of the provincial governors Caesar appointed. The death of Caesar changed everything. He went from being an enemy of the state to a valid an valuable supporter of the republican cause. The Senate appointed him prefect of the fleet and the seacoasts in 43 BC. After this he grouped all the ships he could find together and went to Massilia (modern Marseille). Once again in the upside-down, topsy-turvy Rome after Caesar's death, Sextus's appointment as admiral was cancelled after the triumvirate came to power. Sextus, however, decided to keep his ships and went to Sicily instead of Spain. There he got the governor to give up control of the island. Now Sextus's name was added to the proscription list (even though he didn't have anything to do with Caesar's assassination-like so many others who wound up on it). This was because Sextus was now in a very formidable position. From Sicily he controlled the grain supply to Rome from Egypt, Africa and of course Sicily itself. The gaming board appeared to be getting very interesting again. Proscribed men, refugees and slaves from all across Italy fled to Sextus, as Appian tells us: "His small boats and merchant vessels met any who came by sea; his warships patrolled the shores, made signals to help the lost, and picked up anyone they encountered. He came in person to meet the new arrivals."

A new horizon could be seen in republican minds. Brutus and Cassius were in control of the east. Sextus by starving Italy into submission could be in control of the west. Suddenly, Italy and Gaul seemed isolated. Certainly now it would be only a matter of waiting the triumvirs out and engaging them when necessary before the tyrannical and hated faction of the dead dictator was defeated? Octavian saw the same development occurring and sent a force to crush Sextus, but it was defeated. After this Cassius sent reinforcements to Sextus and Octavian decided to lay off for the time being. The mood in Rome was desolate and anxious. On 1 January 42 BC a religious ceremony took place in Rome. The triumvirs had deified Julius Caesar. By their oaths, the dead dictator was now a god. All of Caesar's acts were sacred and binding. A small temple was dedicated to him in the Forum on the spot where his body had been cremated. From here on out his birthday would be a public holiday; celebrations compulsory and any senators or their sons who did not take part in the festivities were to be fined the huge sum of one million sesterces.

This signalled a huge change in Rome. Kings in the Middle East regularly had themselves "deified"-even in their lifetimes. Sometimes Roman governors were also awarded divine honors in the east-but their deification was only recognized there, not in the west. This greatly enhanced Octavian's position when the novelty of Julius Caesar's deification happened in Rome under the auspices of the state. Now Octavian could say he was a divi filius, the son of a god. Cassius now went to Syria, where he was well known and liked. He had seven legions there and another four in Egypt also joined him. Brutus had pretended to be a student at Athens, the closest thing the ancient world had to a university town. However, behind the facade of academic withdrawal, Brutus and his men had been busy winning over opinion in Macedonia. By the close of 44 BC he controlled most of the province. In addition the legions of the neighboring province of Illyricum joined him also. Brutus also captured and eventually executed none other than Mark Antony's brother, Gaius, who was to be the incoming governor there.

The image is of another Roman fresco unearthed at Pompeii. I still have a lot more information that can be typed it is just a matter of getting it here and I hope to have the next post here soon. Thanks again to anyone following or commenting on this blog!